![]() To increase the degree of pain in the demonstrator mice, we selected a shock time of one every 2 s. In this experiment, we examined whether the observer mice exhibited different immobility times when the cagemate mice received electrical shocks at different stimulation frequencies (Additional files 1, 2, 3). Observer behaviour following foot shock to cagemate mice or fear-conditioned cagemate mice However, our results indicate that observer behaviour in the fear observation system may reflect conformity-like or imitative behaviour rather than empathy-like behaviour. If mice exhibit an ability to empathise, then the observer should display empathic behaviour when the demonstrator experiences pain or discomfort under any circumstances. ![]() In the present study, we utilised the fear observation system to alter emotional and behavioural states in demonstrator mice to examine alterations in the behaviour of observer mice. Given that even humans cannot know exactly what others feel and think, it is necessary to exercise caution when discussing whether mice and rats have an ability to empathise. ![]() However, in these observation systems, it remains unclear whether the observer mouse truly recognises the movements of and empathises with the demonstrator mouse. In the last decade, paradigms designed to investigate indirect fear conditioning in laboratory rodents have rapidly emerged in the literature. This phenomenon, known as emotional state matching or influence sharing, has been regarded as a measure of socially transmitted fear. In the fear observation system, the observer mouse exhibits defensive immobility upon witnessing the distress of an allogeneic demonstrator mouse subjected to an electric shock. Several research groups have recognised observational fear as a useful behavioural model for assessing their ability to empathise. Mice and rats may exhibit empathy-related behaviours such as observational fear, social coordination of pain, comfort, and prosocial support behaviour. Indeed, research has suggested that empathy for pain or distress is mediated by common neural and neuroendocrine processes in both humans and animals. However, recent studies have reported that non-primates, birds, and rodents exhibit empathy-like behaviour. Historically, empathy has been regarded as a high-level cognitive process unique to humans and primates. Appropriate animal models of empathy are thus required to more fully elucidate the neurobiological systems involved in empathy and to develop clinical treatment strategies for patients with low empathy. However, little is known regarding the neurobiological substrates underlying empathy. In extreme cases, lack of empathy can lead to severe aggression against others. Impairments in empathy are a hallmark of many neuropsychiatric disorders, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and psychosis. Empathy is also crucial for emotional experiences and social interactions in social animals. Thus, our findings suggest that methods other than the fear observation system should be used to investigate rodent empathy-like behaviour.Įmpathy, which refers to the ability to share and understand the emotions of others, is an important element of our social and emotional lives. Thus, not only visual but also auditory and odour information additionally influenced the conformity-like behaviour shown by observer mice. ConclusionĪlthough our results indicate that observer mice change their behaviour based on the movements of demonstrator mice, increases in immobility time may reflect conformity-like behaviour rather than emotional empathy. In addition, the proportion of immobility time among observer mice significantly increased when demonstrator mice exhibited fear learning and excessive immobility. Moreover, when demonstrators exhibited excessive activity, the activity of the observers significantly increased. Relative to low-frequency stimulation, frequent electrical stimulation reduced immobility time among observer mice. We examined changes in the behaviour of an observer mouse when a demonstrator mouse was anaesthetised, when the demonstrator’s activity was increased, and when the interval of electrical stimulation was altered. However, in these observation systems, it remains unclear whether the observer mouse truly recognises the movements of, and empathises with, the demonstrator mouse. Several research groups have recognised observational fear in mice as a useful behavioural model for assessing their ability to empathise. Empathy refers to the ability to recognise and share emotions with others.
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